Table 3.5: Achievement gap with respect to parental education, sex, and migration background at the start and end of primary education. Parental education Sex Migration background (Middle=ref.) (Male=ref.) (None=ref.) Low High Female Western Non-Western Panel I: Reading Grade 6 -.140*** .462*** .241*** .087*** -.025 Grade 6, control grade 2 OLS -.080*** .307*** .114*** .117*** .097*** (57.14) (66.45) (47.30) (134.48) / IV -.051*** .218*** .043*** .134*** .166*** (36.43) (47.19) (17.84) (154.02) / Panel II: Spelling Grade 6 -.051*** .248*** .047*** .143*** .153*** Grade 6, control grade 2 OLS -.025 .129*** -.049*** .121*** .148*** (49.02) (52.01) / (84.62) (96.73) IV -.016 .085*** -.086*** .113*** .145*** (31.37) (34.27) / (79.02) (94.77) Panel III: Math Grade 6 -.103*** .439*** -.273*** .131*** .011 Grade 6, control grade 2 OLS -.063*** .247*** -.034*** .110*** .137*** (61.17) (56.26) (12.45) (83.97) / IV -.050*** .185*** .044*** .102*** .178*** (48.54) (42.14) / (77.86) / Note. This table presents the estimates for the regression of sixth-grade skill scores on student characteristics (parental education, age, sex, migration background, household type, and family size), grade retention, a covid dummy, and year FE. In the first row of each panel, the estimate for the corresponding student characteristic is reported. In the second and third rows, the second-grade skill score is added to the regression, and the updated estimates for the student characteristic are shown for the OLS and IV regressions, respectively. The proportion of the sixth-grade achievement gap that forms between second and sixth grade is displayed in parentheses. A forward slash indicates that the learning advancement of a specific group is in the opposite direction of the sixth-grade achievement gap. This would result in a negative proportion of the sixth-grade achievement gap formed between second and sixth grade, which we do not report. A forward slash is also displayed if the sixth-grade achievement gap is not significant. ***p< .01, **p< .05, *p< .1. 69
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