migrant students outperform their native peers in spelling. The remaining rows of Table 3.5 represent the learning advancement of varying student groups within primary education, as they control for the skill score of students in second grade. The first line always presents the estimates for this learning advancement, while the second line, shown in parentheses, indicates the percentage of the achievement gap that is developed in the primary school period. We examine this learning advancement by OLS and IV, given the different conclusions that might be drawn from both estimates. Parental education First, students with low-educated parents make smaller learning advancements in reading compared to those with middle-educated parents, while students with high-educated parents make larger advancements. A similar trend is observed in math. For spelling, students with high-educated parents tend to make greater learning advancements in spelling compared to their peers with middle-educated parents. Students with low-educated parents do not advance significantly different than their peers with middle-educated parents in spelling. Given the achievement gap between students of low- and high-educated parents in first grade, shown in Table B.9 of the appendix, our findings on the learning advancements are consistent with a cumulative model of development, which describes that achievement gaps among students widen throughout primary education (e.g., Stanovich, 1986). To be more precise, while students of high-educated parents already perform better in first grade, they 67
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