among parents. We distinguish low-, middle- and high-educated parents. Low-educated corresponds to a maximum of ISCED 2 (lower secondary education). Middle-educated includes ISCED 3 or 4 (upper secondary education or post-secondary non-tertiary education). Higheducated refers to ISCED 5 or above (tertiary education). As we do not have full information on parental education for every student, we add a dummy for those who have missing information regarding this variable to limit data loss in the analyses.9 Students are on average twelve years old in grade six. Male and female students are almost equally represented, and the percentage of students with a migration background in the sample is representative for the Dutch student population. Furthermore, we consider the type of the student’s household. We separate two-parent households from other types. Last, we include family size, measured as the number of children in the household. Table B.1 provides an overview of the detailed descriptibtion of the variables related to student characteristics. 9We include a dummy variable for the missing category for parental education in our analysis. We perform two robustness checks in the appendix: one excluding the missing category, while the other imputes the parental education variable. The results remain robust in these variants. There are a negligible number of missing values in two other variables (household type and family size). We exclude these observations with missing values from the analyses. 53
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