3.2.2 The development of achievement gaps throughout schooling Achievements gaps are not static. Several studies report that achievement gaps evolve throughout childhood. Von Hippel and Hamrock (2019) conclude that most achievement gaps are already well-established by the time children begin primary school, with only minor changes during subsequent schooling. However, an overarching conclusion about all achievement gaps cannot be drawn from this evidence, as the dynamics may vary depending on the specific type of gap being examined (e.g., SES, sex, or native-migrant background). Passaretta and Skopek (2018b) document the development of achievement gaps throughout childhood, including studies from multiple countries. In their report, they examine the development of SES and native-migrant achievement gaps. First, SES achievement gaps seem to emerge early in life, increase steadily during infancy, and are well-established before children begin primary school. Afterwards, SES achievement gaps remain largely stable, with only a slight increase after school entry and throughout primary education.3 In the Netherlands, SES achievement gaps widen during primary school, which is largely driven by high-SES students improving faster than their peers (Van Huizen, 2018). However, this widening gap then reduces during lower secondary education. So, while the SES gap does widen during primary school in the Netherlands, it does not 3This is consistent with findings of Skopek and Passaretta (2021) in Germany, showing that SES gaps emerge as early as at seven months of age, increase before children start school, and persist relatively consistently throughout their schooling years, with only minor changes. 47
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