Chapter 3. Primary School Skill Development: from First to Sixth Grade for these achievement differences are, among others, found in varying levels of resources, the extent to which the home environment stimulates learning, and the language used at home (e.g., Buckingham et al., 2013; Conger & Donnellan, 2007; Ermisch, 2008; Hoff, 2003, 2006; McLoyd, 1998; Melhuish et al., 2008). Second, we examine achievement differences between males and females. The literature describes that female students perform better in language compared to male students, who perform better in math (e.g., Cobb-Clark & Moschion, 2017; Cornwell et al., 2013; Golsteyn & Schils, 2014; Reilly & Neumann, 2013; Robinson & Lubienski, 2011; Van Hek et al., 2019). Reasons for these differences could be, for instance, the role of biological differences, parental expectations, and stereotypes (e.g., Auyeung et al., 2009; Eccles et al., 1990; Furnham et al., 2002; Guiso et al., 2008; Kimura & Hampson, 1994; Reilly, 2012; Reilly et al., 2016; Shapiro & Williams, 2012). Last, we consider achievement differences between students with and without migration background. The literature reports that reasons for such differences may be due to, for instance, varying endowments, parental knowledge or educational beliefs (e.g., Boyce et al., 2010; Meunier, 2011; Prevoo et al., 2016; Rowe et al., 2016; Schnepf, 2004). Part of the achievement gap between migrant and native students is found to be explained by differences in SES (e.g., Skopek & Passaretta, 2018; Van Huizen, 2018). 46
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