skills. This can be achieved by stimulating the development of basic skills at home or within the education system. In an indirect way, this can be done by securing consistent and long-term funding, resource allocation, and attention to basic skills. These investments in the development of basic skills should be made as early as possible. Although I do not examine a causal pathway between skill levels at varying points in time, my results suggest that investing in early childhood and preschool education might be useful, so that children develop essential skills before entering primary school. Other research has also shown that early education enhances school readiness, boost academic performance, and lead to better long-term outcomes (e.g., Barnett, 2011; Blau, 2021; Duncan & Magnuson, 2013; Gormley Jr et al., 2005; Melhuish et al., 2015; Reynolds et al., 2011). There are significant differences in students’ mastery of basic skills. This dissertation demonstrates that some of these differences between students at the end of primary education are formed before students enter primary school, but also continue to develop throughout their school years. If policymakers aim to close the achievement gaps between students, their investments should take place both before and during primary education. That said, educational disparities are a complex issue, often viewed through the lens of social justice, with the belief that everyone deserves equal opportunities, regardless of their background. It is important to distinguish, however, between equal opportunities and equal outcomes: while policies can aim to provide all students with similar resources and chances to succeed, differences in outcomes may still arise due to a variety of social, cultural, or individual factors. Students 149
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