tracking is enabled by biannual standardized tests, although it is only strictly mandatory to test at least once per year. In this chapter, we use these standardized tests on reading and math. 5.2.2 Climate in the Netherlands With respect to climate, the Netherlands is characterized by mild temperatures, with cool summers and relatively mild winters. However, the Netherlands is warming twice as fast as the rest of the world, due to the proximity of the Arctic and the atmospheric circulation that increases the likelihood of summer heatwaves (Copernicus, 2024; KNMI, 2021). In recent years, the country has experienced an increase in the frequency and intensity of heatwaves, which poses challenges for the educational system. Measures to deal with these periods of heat are still in their infancy, and there is currently no national heat protocol in place. If the temperature is above 30 degrees, schools are allowed to implement a different schedule in which they plan shorter class hours or days. Yet they must still meet the minimum required number of instructional hours per school year, which makes them not inclined to implement this measure. 5.2.3 Student performance data We use data of the student administration systems (“Leerlingvolgsystemen” in Dutch) from schools, which collect reading and math scores on standardized tests of first-to-sixth-grade students, administered biannually between 2013 and 2023. We distinguish a mid-term test and an end-of-term test, mostly administered in January-February and MayJune, respectively. Consequently, students normally take up to twelve 115
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