5.1 Introduction Global warming is an increasing concern. Since 1880, the earth’s average temperature has increased by 0.08 degrees Celsius per decade, with the rate more than doubling since 1981 (NOAA, 2021). This warming trend has led to more frequent and more intense weather extremes. Extreme temperatures are expected to become even more common in the next decades (IPCC, 2023). Previous literature has shown that extreme temperatures are linked to adverse health outcomes, discomfort, and increased mortality (e.g., Anderson & Bell, 2011; Bai et al., 2014; Barreca, 2012; Descheˆnes & Greenstone, 2011; McMorris et al., 2006; Nybo et al., 2014). Exposure to extreme temperatures has also been shown to subtly undermine human capital formation by impairing student performance through reduced school attendance, sleep deprivation, and diminished focus and concentration (e.g., Graff Zivin et al., 2018; Park, 2022; Park et al., 2020). However, these studies are mostly performed on adolescents, while skill formation theories highlight the importance of early skill proficiency (e.g., Cunha & Heckman, 2007). This proficiency is essential as it is the foundation for human capital formation, and so indirectly for economic growth. In the wake of global warming, it is therefore crucial to gain a thorough understanding of how temperature impacts primary school students’ skill proficiencies. This chapter examines the effect of temperature on reading and math test scores among primary school students in the Netherlands, with a particular focus on the impact of daily maximum temperatures. Furthermore, we investigate heterogeneity at the student and school level. 109
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