Chapter 4. The Interplay of Reading, Spelling, and Math in Primary Education: A Panel VAR Analysis those with middle-educated parents (24%).7 A smaller proportion of students have low-educated parents (7%). For 22% of the students, data on parental education is missing. When considering migration background, the majority of students are natives (74%), with a smaller share coming from Western (8%) and non-Western (19%) backgrounds. Compared to the full population of Dutch sixth-grade students in 20192021, our sample slightly underrepresents students with low-educated parents and overrepresents those with high-educated parents. Table 4.1: Student characteristics in sixth grade. Perc. Sex Male 51.06 Female 48.94 Parental education Low-educated 7.20 Middle-educated 24.39 High-educated 46.84 Missing 21.58 Migration background Natives 73.56 Western 7.77 Non-Western 18.67 Note. This table presents the descriptives of the student characteristics. It presents the percentages of students per category for sex, parental education, and migration background. 7Low-educated corresponds to a maximum of ISCED 2 (lower secondary education). Middle-educated includes ISCED 3 or 4 (upper secondary education or postsecondary non-tertiary education). High-educated refers to ISCED 5 or above (tertiary education). 88
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