Intra-EU Labour Mobility and the Welfare State 79 4.3.4 Other Explanatory Variables Table 4.4: Independent Variables, European Countries, 2004-2013 Variable Measure N Mean SD Source EU13 labour migration Labour migrants from EU13 countries as a percentage of the labour force 206 2.29 2.11 EU-LFS, 2017 EU15 labour migration Labour migrants from EU15 countries as a percentage of the labour force 206 7.27 11.65 EU-LFS, 2017 Foreign-born Foreign-born (those born abroad) as a percentage of the labour force 199 14.47 8.91 OECD (2017b) Trade openness Sum of exports and imports of goods and services as a share of GDP (divided by 100) 207 1.08 0.72 World Bank (2017) Capital openness Sum of net inflows and outflows of foreign direct investment as a share of GDP (divided by 100) 208 0.19 0.38 World Bank (2017) Left-wing governments Seat share in parliament of social democratic and other left parties in government, measured in percentage of the total parliamentary seat share of all governing parties, weighted by the number of days in office in a given year (divided by 100) 224 0.36 0.35 Armingeon et al. (2023a, 2023b) Union density Net union membership as a proportion of wage and salary earners in employment 218 33.97 19.59 Armingeon et al. (2023a, 2023b) Deindustrialisation 100 minus the sum of manufacturing and agricultural employment as a percentage of the working age population 205 81.69 4.08 OECD (2017c) Log of GDP per capita GDP per capita, constant prices & OECD base year – 2010 208 10.61 0.27 OECD (2017c) Unemployment rate The share of the labour force that is without work but available for and seeking employment 208 8.41 4.74 World Bank (2017) Old dependency ratio The ratio of people older than 64 to the working-age population 208 26.26 4.05 World Bank (2017) Disability rate Persons who identify as suffering from sickness or disability as a percentage of the population 156 6.45 5.25 EU-LFS (2017) & Been and van Vliet (2017) Young dependency ratio The ratio of people younger than 15 to the working-age population 208 24.79 3.05 World Bank (2017) The key measures and data sources of all other variables are presented in Table 4.4. The controls chosen are traditional variables used by previous comparative studies on welfare state reform (e.g. Brady & Young Lee, 2014; Iversen & Cusack, 2000; Wang & van Vliet, 2019). We use two variables to express two key facets of globalisation, trade openness and capital openness. To account for the role of partisan politics we use government composition operationalised as the relative power position of social
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