76 Chapter 4 Table 4.1: Dependent Variables, European Countries, 2004-2017 Variable Measure N Mean SD Source Old Age Spending Public spending on pensions, early retirement pensions, home-help and residential services as a percentage of GDP 224 8.65 2.76 OECD (2024b) Incapacity Spending Public spending on care services, disability benefits, benefits accruing from occupational injury and accident legislation, and employee sickness payments as a percentage of GDP 159 2.57 1.03 OECD (2024b) Family Spending Public spending on child allowances and credits, childcare support, income support during leave, and single parent payments as a percentage of GDP 224 2.38 0.92 OECD (2024b) ALMP Spending Public spending on employment services, training, employment incentives, integration of persons with disabilities, direct job creation, and start-up incentives as a percentage of GDP 224 0.75 0.37 OECD (2024b) Unemployment Spending Public spending on unemployment compensation and early retirement for labour market reasons as a percentage of GDP 224 1.34 0.80 OECD (2024b), Armingeon et al. (2017), NHWSTAT (2024) Social Assistance Replacement Rate Net social assistance benefits as a percentage of the net average wage 146 40.25 11.12 Wang & van Vliet (2016a, 2016b), Nelson (2013), OECD (2017a) Unemployment Replacement Rate Net unemployment benefits as a percentage of the net average wage 224 56.82 21.03 OECD (2024a) 4.3.3 Explanatory Variables – Measuring Intra-EU Labour Migration In this study we aim to compare the effects of two types of labour mobility to 16 European countries: 1. Stock of EU15 & European Free Trade Association (EFTA) labour migration (as a prcentage of the labour force) 2. Stock of EU13 labour migration (as a percentage of the labour force) A traditional indicator for immigration is ‘foreign-born as a percentage of the population’ (Burgoon et al., 2012; Burgoon, 2014; Gaston & Rajaguru, 2013; Fenwick, 2019; Mau & Burkhardt, 2009; Soroka et al., 2006; 2016) because it is easily defined, data on stocks of migrants tend to be more reliable than flows of migrants, and there is good cross-country coverage for a long period of time (de Beer et al., 2010; Fenwick, 2021). However, we use these two new indicators for immigration to build further on the arguments of previous researchers and provide a more nuanced view of migration and social protection.
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