19 General introduction 1 Akiyama, & Lansford, 1998). Furthermore, lacking support and smaller social networks were associated with increased mental health service use (Albert, Becker, Mccrone, & Thornicroft, 1998). Noteworthy, negative effects of social networks on mental wellbeing have been reported, particularly among females with a higher number of close social relationships, females experiencing pressure from network members, and females with obligations to provide social support (Antonucci et al., 1998; Kawachi & Berkman, 2001). Despite these various effects of social network factors, the positive relationship between supportive social networks and mental health is generally accepted (Kawachi & Berkman, 2001; Thoits, 2011). Social network and criminal recidivism As for mental health, the potential influence of social networks on the development and persistence of criminal behavior has been emphasized in several theoretical models from the field of criminology. The differential association theory considers criminal behavior as a social learning process (Sutherland, 1949). A person will develop criminal behavior in interaction with other criminal network members, depending on the frequency, duration, and intensity of the contact. The more exposure to certain behaviors, the more a person will copy and internalize those behaviors. The social control theory proposes that strong connections with social networks and society will discourage people from engaging in criminal behavior (Hirschi, 1969). The social network is understood as source of control. For example, network members can reinforce and disapprove of a person’s behavior, thereby constraining risk behaviors. Besides, a person with strong connections with network members and with the society risks losing these connections after engaging in criminal behavior, which could discourage this behavior. Following up on this, the social support theory assumes that higher social support levels decrease the risk of criminal behavior (Cullen, 1994). Moreover, the exchange of social support enables strong connections between network members, leading to social control. Social networks are both a risk and protective factors for criminal recidivism, as supported by empirical research. On the one hand, it was found that social networks encouraging criminal behavior, friends and family members with criminal behaviors, problematic family relationships, and a lack of social support predicted criminal recidivism in forensic (psychiatric) populations (Bonta, Blais, & Wilson, 2014; Eisenberg et al., 2019; Gendreau, Little, & Goggin, 1996). On the other hand, strong family relationships, strong relationships with prosocial adults, connections with friends in the community, a stable romantic relationship, and higher levels of social support predicted desistance from criminal behavior (Barrick et al., 2014; Berg & Huebner, 2011; Borowsky, Hogan, & Ireland, 1997;
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