88 Factors influencing teachers’ use of digital student feedback to improve their teaching et al. (2014), Röhl and Rollett. distinguished between f ive types of teacher attitudes towards student feedback: 1. Teachers with an overall positive attitude towards student feedback. These teachers collect student feedback and intend to use the feedback to improve the quality of their teaching. However, they are not very critical; they see every opportunity to obtain feedback as positive. 2. Teachers with an unambitious attitude towards student feedback. They collect student feedback and are rather positive (at least, not negative) about student feedback, but they hardly seem to use the feedback to improve the quality of their teaching (for example, because of no perceived need for action due to positive feedback, lack of resources, or motivational personality traits). 3. Teachers with a critical attitude towards student feedback. These teachers collect student feedback, but they have doubts about the validity of student perceptions of teaching quality. 4. Teachers with a negative attitude towards student feedback, who collect student feedback, but are negative about using it for their professional learning because of negative (emotional) experiences with student feedback. 5. Teachers with a negative attitude towards student feedback, who (therefore) never collect it. 5.2.2 Teachers’ improvement-oriented actions After collecting student feedback, teachers can carry out improvementoriented actions. In this study, we distinguish between two forms: actions by teachers to analyse, interpret, and reflect on the data, and teacher actions aimed at actually improving teaching quality. In our study, we focus on the first type of improvement-oriented action. This is often referred to as “data literacy” (Mandinach, 2012; Mandinach & Gummer, 2013), meaning that teachers need to be able to transform raw data into actionable knowledge. Teachers who are data-literate can identify areas for improvement based on the feedback, which is a prerequisite for arriving at improvement-oriented actions (Balch, 2012; Datnow & Park, 2018; Helmke & Hosenfeld, 2005). Teachers need to conduct a thorough data analysis in order to obtain a clearer understanding of what the students meant by the feedback they gave, and to outline what the strengths and weaknesses of their lessons are. To do so, teachers also could discuss the feedback with their students during a follow-up lesson (as a group or individually; Gärtner, 2014).
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