72 Does smartphone-assisted student feedback affect the quality of teachers’ teaching? Table 4.1: Background characteristics of the 60 teachers (at M0) Experimental group Control group N (%) M (SD) N (%) M (SD) Schools 23 (47.92) 25 (52.08) Teachers 28 (46.77) 32 (53.33) Teacher gender Woman 12 (42.90) 13 (40.60) Man 16 (57.10) 19 (59.40) Teacher age 41.21 (2.05) 41.00 (1.93) Years of teaching experience General 11.23 (1.47) 14.00 (1.71) Math (SE) 10.84 (1.51) 11.09 (1.46) Nationality Dutch 31 (96.90) 28 (100.0) Other 1 (3.10) 0 (0.00) A total of 1488 students participated in the study (14/15 years old; 48.5% boys at M0), with 681 students assigned to the experimental group and 807 students assigned to the control group. Students were introduced to the use of the Impact! tool. To encourage them to answer the Impact! questions from their perspective, no explanation was given about the content of the questions. 4.3.5 Instruments Questionnaires were administered to teachers and students in both groups for the pretest and posttest (M0 and M3). The teacher questionnaire included, first of all, questions on teacher background characteristics. In addition, to measure professional reflection by teachers, the four-item reflection scale from the Level of Reflective Thinking questionnaire was administered (Kember et al., 2010). For the purpose of this study, the Dutch translation of this questionnaire by Konings et al. (2016) was adapted for use in educational settings (e.g., “I often reflect on my actions in the lesson to see whether I could have improved on what I did”). The items were responded to on a 4-point Likert-scale (1 = totally disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, 4 = totally agree). The factor structure of the full questionnaire as described by Kember et al. (2010) was considered to be good. To measure the quality of teachers’ teaching pre and post, students completed a questionnaire at M0 and M3. In the Impact! tool, the questions are about one specific lesson, whereas in the questionnaires used at M0 and M3, the same items were about teachers’ general teaching practices. Examples
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