67 4 and Veldkamp (2011), feedback is preferably given at regular times, right after the specific lesson, so that the link between the lesson and the feedback can be made clearer than when the feedback is postponed. The feedback ideally not only gives information about the level of performance but also, if there is room for improvement, about how the recipient can improve. Contextual factors also play an important role in teachers’ use of feedback and the choices that they make regarding improving their teaching (Levin & Datnow, 2012; Schildkamp & Lai, 2013a; Wohlstetter et al., 2008). School leaders, for example, can facilitate and support teachers to work collaboratively on team-shared goals, or on goals related to school-specif ic policies, and they can create a culture of teacher profession development. Recipient characteristics also influence the use of feedback. Teachers can accept or reject the student feedback as information about their teaching quality, and they need to be motivated to utilize the data (Fresko & Nasser, 2001; Gärtner, 2014; Lincoln, 1995; Miller, 1971; Pambookian, 1972, 1976; Tuckman & Olivier, 1968). Teachers’ background characteristics also influence their use of feedback (e.g., the quality of their teaching, teaching experience, gender and age; see chapter 3 of this dissertation). These recipient characteristics are in line with the general theory of persuasive system design (Oinas-Kukkonen & Harjumaa, 2008, 2009). In the Fogg behavioural model (FBM; Fogg, 2009) it is argued that “for a person to perform a new behaviour, he or she must (1) be suff iciently motivated, (2) have the ability to perform the behaviour, and (3) be triggered to perform the behaviour” (Fogg, 2009, p. 1). 4.2.3 Hypotheses Based on the improvement process as described by Fraser (2007), we were now especially interested in the effects of using smartphone-assisted student feedback on teachers’ insights into areas for improvement, reflection on their lessons, improvement-oriented actions, and the quality of their lessons. We decided to provide teachers with the feedback without any further support and not yet taking any of the influential factors into account (this will be done in other work). The following four hypotheses were tested (the article is organized in line with these hypotheses). The provision of smartphone-assisted student feedback: - . . . enhances teachers’ insight into where their lessons can be improved; - . . . enhances teachers’ professional reflection on their lessons; - . . . increases teachers’ improvement-oriented actions; - . . . improves the quality of teachers’ teaching.
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