66 Does smartphone-assisted student feedback affect the quality of teachers’ teaching? in this case was about teachers’ contribution to a positive and safe learning environment in the classroom and about the nature of teachers’ teaching activities during the lessons (e.g., how they provided instruction, what kinds of questions they asked their students and in what way). Fraser (2007) argued that the improvement process based on student feedback includes f ive steps: 1. Data on student perceptions of the lesson are collected. 2. The results are provided to teachers as feedback. 3. Teachers can identify features of their lessons that need improvement and consider alternative ways of acting. In other words: the feedback can stimulate teachers to reflect on their own practices. 4. Teachers can carry out improvement-oriented actions during and outside of the lessons over a period of time, based on the feedback. 5. To determine the effectiveness of the actions undertaken by teachers, student feedback can be collected again. Thus, by making teachers reflect on their own practices (Driessen et al., 2008; Ertmer & Newby, 1996), the feedback can provide an alternative perspective on teachers’ teaching (Bell & Aldridge, 2014; Hoban, 2004; Hoban & Hastings, 2006). Teachers can develop improvement-oriented actions as a follow-up to their professional reflection on their teaching (Fraser’s fourth step). These can be actions taken during the lesson, in which a teacher directly tries to improve something, such as giving students more time in the lesson to work on assignments, or adapting the pace of the lesson to students’ needs. Student feedback can also lead to improvement-oriented actions outside of the lessons, such as when teachers consult colleagues for advice, attend professional development activities or look for relevant information on the internet or elsewhere. Teachers can also discuss the feedback with their students (as a group or individually; Gärtner, 2014). This process can help teachers improve the quality of their teaching. 4.2.2 Factors influencing feedback So far, we have described a theory of action for the improvement of teaching quality when receiving student feedback. However, we know that the effectiveness of feedback is not straightforward, but depends on several factors (Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Visscher, 2015). The timing, frequency and content of the feedback are examples of influential factors: when (immediately or postponed) and how often is the feedback provided to teachers, and what information does the feedback contain (Shute, 2008)? According to Timmers
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