44 Factors associated with differences in digitally measured student perceptions of teaching quality characteristics of effective teaching: a supportive and positive classroom climate, well-organized and structured classroom management, clear instruction, adaptive instruction, the quality of teacher–student interactions, cognitive activation of students to promote deep learning, and formative assessment of student learning during the lesson. 3.2.1 Differences in perceptions Student perceptions of teaching quality differ. But what is meant when we talk about factors that are linked with differences in student perceptions of teaching quality? To explain this, the PERSON model developed by Kenny (1994, 2004) and Kenny et al. (1994) is discussed here. This model distinguishes between six sources on the basis of which perceptions (e.g., by students) of a target (e.g., a teacher) are formed: personality, error, residual, stereotype, opinion, and norm (PERSON). Three of these sources refer to shared assumptions: (1) stereotype: the physical appearance of the target; (2) personality: how the target is generally seen by others; (3) norm: the shared, unique meaning that perceivers give to a specific target. The other three sources refer to private interpretations: (4) residual: idiosyncratic or personal stereotype concerning the target; (5) opinion: the unique view that the perceiver has of the target; (6) error: a judgment of behaviour that is not shared with other perceivers and not correlated with the judgment of other target behaviour. Considering these sources on which perceptions are based, it is not surprising that students’ individual perceptions of teaching quality differ. For instance, teachers differ in their physical appearance and personality, so students are likely to perceive the quality of the teaching of two (or more) different teachers differently. Students also have different personal characteristics (e.g., their gender and level of academic performance) and opinions (e.g., values and norms), which can make students in one and the same class more likely to rate the quality of their teachers’ teaching differently. Insight into the extent to which differences in student ratings are related to such factors is important for evaluating the ratings students give and to avoid any incorrect conclusions. For example, the average teaching quality score can be lower in a class with many low-performing students without the teaching quality actually being lower. Or female teachers might receive significantly lower ratings from male students, even though they are doing as good a job as male teachers do. One should therefore interpret students’ ratings carefully, and not just take them to be accurate.
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