Chapter 2. Ethnic participation in Dutch amateur football clubs 37 population. Therefore, their relative participation in amateur football has declined over time, as is depicted in table 2.5. This could be explained by the recent migration of many Middle and Eastern European individuals to the Netherlands, in comparison to other minority groups. Aside from the potential lack of important cultural and/or economic resources, recent migrants have a relative precarious position which complicates long term commitments such as a club membership. This is illustrated by Gijsberts and Lubbers’ (2015) study, which shows that Polish and Bulgarian migrants are likely to move within the Netherlands or return to their home country. To summarize, the two first expectations of this chapter were not confirmed. Except for recent migration, the results do not support the idea that differences in resources are the primary cause of ethnic disparities in club membership rates of amateur football clubs. Not a matter of discrimination either The second explanation for ethnic differences in sports participation is discrimination. Ethnic prejudice might cause ethnic minorities to be discriminated against within amateur football clubs. This could in turn discourage them to become or stay on as a member, resulting in a gap in participation. As may have been clear already from the previous section, the ethnic participation figures on Dutch amateur football do not provide evidence for this idea. The third expectation of this chapter, namely that predominantly Muslim ethnic minorities, most notably citizens with a Turkish or Moroccan background, are most at risk for being discriminated against, and therefore will have relatively low participation rates, is not supported. Participation rates of Turkish and Moroccan citizens rivals or even goes beyond that of ethnically Dutch citizens, and participation of North African citizens and of Muslim countries is roughly around the average. The fourth expectation of this chapter and the second expectation regarding discrimination, states that minority groups with postcolonial backgrounds, minority groups with a darker skin complexion and people with a Middle or Eastern European background may also be at risk of discrimination resulting in comparatively low participation rates, although higher than the previous group. The results do not reflect this expectation. The participation rate of people with a Sub-Saharan African background ends up as one of the highest of all ethnic groups in 2014, slightly below Moroccans. Participation figures for people with
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