22 Ethnic sorting in football minorities. Consequently, differences between ethnic groups are a result of experienced constraints on their respectively ability to gain access to and join in on leisure activities. The second perspective has been described as the subcultural perspective1. From this perspective it is assumed that ethnic groups do not experience and hold the same socialization patterns, cultural values and norms, and, consequentially, develop diverging cultural tastes and behaviours which translate to different participation rates. Ethnic marginality Ethnic Differences in Resources Historically, the central focus of the ethnic marginality perspective has been on differences between socioeconomic resources. Like most activities, participation in sports, especially when organized within clubs, requires a certain amount of resources at one’s disposal. The relative disadvantaged positions of ethnic minority members might therefore act as a barrier to gain access to the sports domain (Collins, 2014; Wiertz, 2016). Earlier research suggests that this indeed might be the case. Multiple studies show that part of the difference in participation between ethnic minority and majority groups coincides with differences in socioeconomic status (Higgins & Dale, 2013; Johnston et al., 2007; Wijtzes et al., 2014). While this does not necessarily imply a casual mechanism, it seems plausible that participation in sports, especially organized competitive sports like amateur football, requires a financial investment in terms of sports clothing, membership fees and transportation, which ethnic minorities on average might be less likely to meet. In addition to economic resources, a lack of appropriate cultural resources might also act as a barrier for participation. An insufficient mastery of the language might be the most apparent example, but Elling and Claringbould (2005) and Vogels (2014) have suggested that there might be more subtle mechanisms at play, particularly relevant for club organised sports. For instance, ethnic minority members may be less familiar and comfortable with the sports club culture(s) in the Netherlands than ethnically Dutch individuals are. A lack of this tacit knowledge might discourage or prevent a part of ethnic minority 1 The original name is ethnicity perspective. Later, subcultural perspective or hypothesis are also used (Floyd, Shinew, McGuire, & Noe, 1994), which are more fitting and clearer descriptions.
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